Transposable elements contribute to the establishment of the glycine shuttle in Brassicaceae species.

C3 -C4 intermediate photosynthesis has evolved at least five times convergently in the Brassicaceae, despite this family lacking bona fide C4 species. The establishment of this carbon concentrating mechanism is known to require a complex suite of ultrastructural modifications, as well as changes in spatial expression patterns, which are both thought to be underpinned by a reconfiguration of existing gene-regulatory networks. However, to date, the mechanisms which underpin the reconfiguration of these gene networks are largely unknown. In this study, we used a pan-genomic association approach to identify genomic features that could confer differential gene expression towards the C3 -C4 intermediate state by analysing eight C3 species and seven C3 -C4 species from five independent origins in the Brassicaceae. We found a strong correlation between transposable element (TE) insertions in cis-regulatory regions and C3 -C4 intermediacy. Specifically, our study revealed 113 gene models in which the presence of a TE within a gene correlates with C3 -C4 intermediate photosynthesis. In this set, genes involved in the photorespiratory glycine shuttle are enriched, including the glycine decarboxylase P-protein whose expression domain undergoes a spatial shift during the transition to C3 -C4 photosynthesis. When further interrogating this gene, we discovered independent TE insertions in its upstream region which we conclude to be responsible for causing the spatial shift in GLDP1 gene expression. Our findings hint at a pivotal role of TEs in the evolution of C3 -C4 intermediacy, especially in mediating differential spatial gene expression.

Glycine Decarboxylase (GLDC) Plays a Crucial Role in Regulating Energy Metabolism, Invasion, Metastasis and Immune Escape for Prostate Cancer.

Glycine decarboxylase (GLDC) is one of the core enzymes for glycine metabolism, and its biological roles in prostate cancer (PCa) are unclear. First, we found that GLDC plays a central role in glycolysis in 540 TCGA PCa patients. Subsequently, a metabolomic microarray showed that GLDC enhanced aerobic glycolysis in PCa cells, and GLDC and its enzyme activity enhanced glucose uptake, lactate production and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity in PCa cells. Next, we found that GLDC was highly expressed in PCa, was directly regulated by hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF1-α) and regulated downstream LDHA expression. In addition, GLDC and its enzyme activity showed a strong ability to promote the migration and invasion of PCa both in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, we found that the GLDC-high group had a higher TP53 mutation frequency, lower CD8+ T-cell infiltration, higher immune checkpoint expression, and higher immune exclusion scores than the GLDC-low group. Finally, the GLDC-based prognostic risk model by applying LASSO Cox regression also showed good predictive power for the clinical characteristics and survival in PCa patients. This evidence indicates that GLDC plays crucial roles in glycolytic metabolism, invasion and metastasis, and immune escape in PCa, and it is a potential therapeutic target for prostate cancer.

Glycine decarboxylase maintains mitochondrial protein lipoylation to support tumor growth.

The folic acid cycle mediates the transfer of one-carbon (1C) units to support nucleotide biosynthesis. While the importance of serine as a mitochondrial and cytosolic donor of folate-mediated 1C units in cancer cells has been thoroughly investigated, a potential role of glycine oxidation remains unclear. We developed an approach for quantifying mitochondrial glycine cleavage system (GCS) flux by combining stable and radioactive isotope tracing with computational flux decomposition. We find high GCS flux in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), supporting nucleotide biosynthesis. Surprisingly, other than supplying 1C units, we found that GCS is important for maintaining protein lipoylation and mitochondrial activity. Genetic silencing of glycine decarboxylase inhibits the lipoylation and activity of pyruvate dehydrogenase and impairs tumor growth, suggesting a novel drug target for HCC. Considering the physiological role of liver glycine cleavage, our results support the notion that tissue of origin plays an important role in tumor-specific metabolic rewiring.

Genetic variants in ALDH1L1 and GLDC influence the serine-to-glycine ratio in Hispanic children.

BACKGROUND: Glycine is a proteogenic amino acid that is required for numerous metabolic pathways, including purine, creatine, heme, and glutathione biosynthesis. Glycine formation from serine, catalyzed by serine hydroxy methyltransferase, is the major source of this amino acid in humans. Our previous studies in a mouse model have shown a crucial role for the 10-formyltetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase enzyme in serine-to-glycine conversion. OBJECTIVES: We sought to determine the genomic influence on the serine-glycine ratio in 803 Hispanic children from 319 families of the Viva La Familia cohort. METHODS: We performed a genome-wide association analysis for plasma serine, glycine, and the serine-glycine ratio in Sequential Oligogenic Linkage Analysis Routines while accounting for relationships among family members. RESULTS: All 3 parameters were significantly heritable (h2 = 0.22-0.78; P < 0.004). The strongest associations for the serine-glycine ratio were with single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 family member L1 (ALDH1L1) and glycine decarboxylase (GLDC) and for glycine with GLDC (P < 3.5 × 10-8; effect sizes, 0.03-0.07). No significant associations were found for serine. We also conducted a targeted genetic analysis with ALDH1L1 exonic SNPs and found significant associations between the serine-glycine ratio and rs2886059 (ß = 0.68; SE, 0.25; P = 0.006) and rs3796191 (ß = 0.25; SE, 0.08; P = 0.003) and between glycine and rs3796191 (ß = -0.08; SE, 0.02; P = 0.0004). These exonic SNPs were further associated with metabolic disease risk factors, mainly adiposity measures (P < 0.006). Significant genetic and phenotypic correlations were found for glycine and the serine-glycine ratio with metabolic disease risk factors, including adiposity, insulin sensitivity, and inflammation-related phenotypes [estimate of genetic correlation = -0.37 to 0.35 (P < 0.03); estimate of phenotypic correlation = -0.19 to 0.13 (P < 0.006)]. The significant genetic correlations indicate shared genetic effects among glycine, the serine-glycine ratio, and adiposity and insulin sensitivity phenotypes. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that ALDH1L1 and GLDC SNPs influence the serine-to-glycine ratio and metabolic disease risk.

Meeting in the Middle: Lessons and Opportunities from Studying C3-C4 Intermediates.

The discovery of C3-C4 intermediate species nearly 50 years ago opened up a new avenue for studying the evolution of photosynthetic pathways. Intermediate species exhibit anatomical, biochemical, and physiological traits that range from C3 to C4. A key feature of C3-C4 intermediates that utilize C2 photosynthesis is the improvement in photosynthetic efficiency compared with C3 species. Although the recruitment of some core enzymes is shared across lineages, there is significant variability in gene expression patterns, consistent with models that suggest numerous evolutionary paths from C3 to C4 photosynthesis. Despite the many evolutionary trajectories, the recruitment of glycine decarboxylase for C2 photosynthesis is likely required. As technologies enable high-throughput genotyping and phenotyping, the discovery of new C3-C4 intermediates species will enrich comparisons between evolutionary lineages. The investigation of C3-C4 intermediate species will enhance our understanding of photosynthetic mechanisms and evolutionary processes and will potentially aid in crop improvement.

Metabolic profiles in C3, C3-C4 intermediate, C4-like, and C4 species in the genus Flaveria.

C4 photosynthesis concentrates CO2 around Rubisco in the bundle sheath, favouring carboxylation over oxygenation and decreasing photorespiration. This complex trait evolved independently in >60 angiosperm lineages. Its evolution can be investigated in genera such as Flaveria (Asteraceae) that contain species representing intermediate stages between C3 and C4 photosynthesis. Previous studies have indicated that the first major change in metabolism probably involved relocation of glycine decarboxylase and photorespiratory CO2 release to the bundle sheath and establishment of intercellular shuttles to maintain nitrogen stoichiometry. This was followed by selection for a CO2-concentrating cycle between phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase in the mesophyll and decarboxylases in the bundle sheath, and relocation of Rubisco to the latter. We have profiled 52 metabolites in nine Flaveria species and analysed 13CO2 labelling patterns for four species. Our results point to operation of multiple shuttles, including movement of aspartate in C3-C4 intermediates and a switch towards a malate/pyruvate shuttle in C4-like species. The malate/pyruvate shuttle increases from C4-like to complete C4 species, accompanied by a rise in ancillary organic acid pools. Our findings support current models and uncover further modifications of metabolism along the evolutionary path to C4 photosynthesis in the genus Flaveria.

Effects of growth temperature and nitrogen nutrition on expression of C3-C4 intermediate traits in Chenopodium album.

Proto-Kranz plants represent an initial phase in the evolution from C3 to C3-C4 intermediate to C4 plants. The ecological and adaptive aspects of C3-C4 plants would provide an important clue to understand the evolution of C3-C4 plants. We investigated whether growth temperature and nitrogen (N) nutrition influence the expression of C3-C4 traits in Chenopodium album (proto-Kranz) in comparison with Chenopodium quinoa (C3). Plants were grown during 5 weeks at 20 or 30 °C under standard or low N supply levels (referred to as 20SN, 20LN, 30SN, and 30LN). Net photosynthetic rate and leaf N content were higher in 20SN and 30SN plants than in 20LN and 30LN plants of C. album but did not differ among growth conditions in C. quinoa. The CO2 compensation point (Γ) of C. album was lowest in 30LN plants (36 µmol mol-1), highest in 20SN plants (51 µmol mol-1), and intermediate in 20LN and 30SN plants, whereas Γ of C. quinoa did not differ among the growth conditions (51-52 µmol mol-1). The anatomical structure of leaves was not considerably affected by growth conditions in either species. However, ultrastructural observations in C. album showed that the number of mitochondria per mesophyll or bundle sheath (BS) cell was lower in 20LN and 30LN plants than in 20SN and 30SN plants. Immunohistochemical observations revealed that lower accumulation level of P-protein of glycine decarboxylase (GDC-P) in mesophyll mitochondria than in BS mitochondria is the major factor causing the decrease in Γ values in C. album plants grown under low N supply and high temperature. These results suggest that high growth temperature and low N supply lead to the expression of C3-C4 traits (the reduction of Γ) in the proto-Kranz plants of C. album through the regulation of GDC-P expression.

Dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase, pyruvate oxidation, and acetylation-dependent mechanisms intersecting drug iatrogenesis.

In human metabolism, pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) is one of the most intricate and large multimeric protein systems representing a central hub for cellular homeostasis. The worldwide used antiepileptic drug valproic acid (VPA) may potentially induce teratogenicity or a mild to severe hepatic toxicity, where the underlying mechanisms are not completely understood. This work aims to clarify the mechanisms that intersect VPA-related iatrogenic effects to PDC-associated dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (DLD; E3) activity. DLD is also a key enzyme of α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase, α-ketoadipate dehydrogenase, and the glycine decarboxylase complexes. The molecular effects of VPA will be reviewed underlining the data that sustain a potential interaction with DLD. The drug-associated effects on lipoic acid-related complexes activity may induce alterations on the flux of metabolites through tricarboxylic acid cycle, branched-chain amino acid oxidation, glycine metabolism and other cellular acetyl-CoA-connected reactions. The biotransformation of VPA involves its complete ß-oxidation in mitochondria causing an imbalance on energy homeostasis. The drug consequences as histone deacetylase inhibitor and thus gene expression modulator have also been recognized. The mitochondrial localization of PDC is unequivocal, but its presence and function in the nucleus were also demonstrated, generating acetyl-CoA, crucial for histone acetylation. Bridging metabolism and epigenetics, this review gathers the evidence of VPA-induced interference with DLD or PDC functions, mainly in animal and cellular models, and highlights the uncharted in human. The consequences of this interaction may have significant impact either in mitochondrial or in nuclear acetyl-CoA-dependent processes.

Hormonal regulation of glycine decarboxylase and its relationship to oxidative stress.

In both humans and rodent models, circulating glycine levels are significantly reduced in obesity, glucose intolerance, type II diabetes, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. The glycine cleavage system and its rate-limiting enzyme, glycine decarboxylase (GLDC), is a major determinant of plasma glycine levels. The goals of this study were to determine if the increased expression of GLDC contributes to the reduced plasma glycine levels seen in disease states, to characterize the hormonal regulation of GLDC gene expression, and to determine if altered GLDC expression has physiological effects that might affect the development of diabetes. The findings presented here show that hepatic GLDC gene expression is elevated in mouse models of obesity and diabetes, as well as by fasting. We demonstrated that GLDC gene expression is strongly regulated by the metabolic hormones glucagon and insulin, and we identified the signaling pathways involved in this regulation. Finally, we found that GLDC expression is linked to glutathione levels, with increased expression associated with elevated levels of glutathione and reduced expression associated with a suppression of glutathione and increased cellular ROS levels. These findings suggest that the hormonal regulation of GLDC contributes not only to the changes in circulating glycine levels seen in metabolic disease, but also affects glutathione production, possibly as a defense against metabolic disease-associated oxidative stress.

mTORC1 activity regulates post-translational modifications of glycine decarboxylase to modulate glycine metabolism and tumorigenesis.

Glycine decarboxylase (GLDC) is a key enzyme of glycine cleavage system that converts glycine into one-carbon units. GLDC is commonly up-regulated and plays important roles in many human cancers. Whether and how GLDC is regulated by post-translational modifications is unknown. Here we report that mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signal inhibits GLDC acetylation at lysine (K) 514 by inducing transcription of the deacetylase sirtuin 3 (SIRT3). Upon inhibition of mTORC1, the acetyltransferase acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase 1 (ACAT1) catalyzes GLDC K514 acetylation. This acetylation of GLDC impairs its enzymatic activity. In addition, this acetylation of GLDC primes for its K33-linked polyubiquitination at K544 by the ubiquitin ligase NF-X1, leading to its degradation by the proteasomal pathway. Finally, we find that GLDC K514 acetylation inhibits glycine catabolism, pyrimidines synthesis and glioma tumorigenesis. Our finding reveals critical roles of post-translational modifications of GLDC in regulation of its enzymatic activity, glycine metabolism and tumorigenesis, and provides potential targets for therapeutics of cancers such as glioma.

Arabidopsis lysin motif/F-box-containing protein InLYP1 fine-tunes glycine metabolism by degrading glycine decarboxylase GLDP2.

Lysin motif (LysM) is a carbohydrate-binding module often found in secreted or transmembrane proteins in living organisms from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. Thus far, all characterized LysM-containing proteins in plants are plasma membrane-resident receptors or co-receptors playing roles in plant-microbe interactions. Here, we interrogate the Arabidopsis LysM/F-box-containing protein InLYP1 and reveal its function in glycine metabolism. InLYP1 was mainly expressed by vigorously growing tissues, encoding a nuclear-cytoplasmic protein. We validated InLYP1 as part of the SKP1-CULLIN1-F-box E3 complex for mediating protein degradation. The glycine decarboxylase P-protein 1 (GLDP1) was identified as an InLYP1-interacting protein by both immunoprecipitation/mass spectrometry and yeast two-hybrid library screening. InLYP1 could also interact with GLDP2, a paralog of GLDP1 with weaker catalytic activity, and could mediate the degradation of GLDP2 but not GLDP1. Interestingly, both GLDPs could be O-glycosylated and form homodimers or heterodimers. Overexpression of InLYP1L9A encoding a dominant-negative variant could cause seedling germination retardation on the medium containing glycine. Collectively, these results shed light on the function of plant intracellular LysM-containing proteins, and suggest that InLYP1 may deplete GLDP2 to facilitate glycine decarboxylation in Arabidopsis.

Coleataenia prionitis, a C4-like species in the Poaceae.

C4-like plants represent the penultimate stage of evolution from C3 to C4 plants. Although Coleataenia prionitis (formerly Panicum prionitis) has been described as a C4 plant, its leaf anatomy and gas exchange traits suggest that it may be a C4-like plant. Here, we reexamined the leaf structure and biochemical and physiological traits of photosynthesis in this grass. The large vascular bundles were surrounded by two layers of bundle sheath (BS): a colorless outer BS and a chloroplast-rich inner BS. Small vascular bundles, which generally had a single BS layer with various vascular structures, also occurred throughout the mesophyll together with BS cells not associated with vascular tissue. The mesophyll cells did not show a radial arrangement typical of Kranz anatomy. These features suggest that the leaf anatomy of C. prionitis is on the evolutionary pathway to a complete C4 Kranz type. Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) and pyruvate, Pi dikinase occurred in the mesophyll and outer BS. Glycine decarboxylase was confined to the inner BS. Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) accumulated in the mesophyll and both BSs. C. prionitis had biochemical traits of NADP-malic enzyme type, whereas its gas exchange traits were close to those of C4-like intermediate plants rather than C4 plants. A gas exchange study with a PEPC inhibitor suggested that Rubisco in the mesophyll could fix atmospheric CO2. These data demonstrate that C. prionitis is not a true C4 plant but should be considered as a C4-like plant.

The impact of photorespiration on plant primary metabolism through metabolic and redox regulation.

Photorespiration is an inevitable trait of all oxygenic phototrophs, being the only known metabolic route that converts the inhibitory side-product of Rubisco's oxygenase activity 2-phosphoglycolate (2PG) back into the Calvin-Benson (CB) cycle's intermediate 3-phosphoglycerate (3PGA). Through this function of metabolite repair, photorespiration is able to protect photosynthetic carbon assimilation from the metabolite intoxication that would occur in the present-day oxygen-rich atmosphere. In recent years, much plant research has provided compelling evidence that photorespiration safeguards photosynthesis and engages in cross-talk with a number of subcellular processes. Moreover, the potential of manipulating photorespiration to increase the photosynthetic yield potential has been demonstrated in several plant species. Considering this multifaceted role, it is tempting to presume photorespiration itself is subject to a suite of regulation mechanisms to eventually exert a regulatory impact on other processes, and vice versa. The identification of potential pathway interactions and underlying regulatory aspects has been facilitated via analysis of the photorespiratory mutant phenotype, accompanied by the emergence of advanced omics' techniques and biochemical approaches. In this mini-review, I focus on the identification of enzymatic steps which control the photorespiratory flux, as well as levels of transcriptional, posttranslational, and metabolic regulation. Most importantly, glycine decarboxylase (GDC) and 2PG are identified as being key photorespiratory determinants capable of controlling photorespiratory flux and communicating with other branches of plant primary metabolism.

Obesity increases hepatic glycine dehydrogenase and aminomethyltransferase expression while dietary glycine supplementation reduces white adipose tissue in Zucker diabetic fatty rats.

Obesity is associated with altered glycine metabolism in humans. This study investigated the mechanisms regulating glycine metabolism in obese rats. Eight-week-old Zucker diabetic fatty rats (ZDF; a type-II diabetic animal model) received either 1% glycine or 1.19% L-alanine (isonitrogenous control) in drinking water for 6 weeks. An additional group of lean Zucker rats also received 1.19% L-alanine as a lean control. Glycine concentrations in serum and liver were markedly lower in obese versus lean rats. Enteral glycine supplementation restored both serum and hepatic glycine levels, while reducing mesenteric and internal white fat mass compared with alanine-treated ZDF rats. Blood glucose and non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations did not differ between the control and glycine-supplemented ZDF rats (P > 0.10). Both mRNA and protein expression of aminomethyltransferase (AMT) and glycine dehydrogenase, decarboxylating (GLDC) were increased in the livers of obese versus lean rats (P < 0.05). In contrast, glycine cleavage system H (GCSH) hepatic mRNA expression was downregulated in obese versus lean rats, although there was no change in protein expression. These findings indicate that reduced quantities of glycine observed in obese subjects likely results from an upregulation of the hepatic glycine cleavage system and that dietary glycine supplementation potentially reduces obesity in ZDF rats.

Stoichiometry of two plant glycine decarboxylase complexes and comparison with a cyanobacterial glycine cleavage system.

The multienzyme glycine cleavage system (GCS) converts glycine and tetrahydrofolate to the one-carbon compound 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate, which is of vital importance for most if not all organisms. Photorespiring plant mitochondria contain very high levels of GCS proteins organised as a fragile glycine decarboxylase complex (GDC). The aim of this study is to provide mass spectrometry-based stoichiometric data for the plant leaf GDC and examine whether complex formation could be a general property of the GCS in photosynthesizing organisms. The molar ratios of the leaf GDC component proteins are 1L2 -4P2 -8T-26H and 1L2 -4P2 -8T-20H for pea and Arabidopsis, respectively, as determined by mass spectrometry. The minimum mass of the plant leaf GDC ranges from 1550 to 1650 kDa, which is larger than previously assumed. The Arabidopsis GDC contains four times more of the isoforms GCS-P1 and GCS-L1 in comparison with GCS-P2 and GCS-L2, respectively, whereas the H-isoproteins GCS-H1 and GCS-H3 are fully redundant as indicated by their about equal amounts. Isoform GCS-H2 is not present in leaf mitochondria. In the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, GCS proteins concentrations are low but above the complex formation threshold reported for pea leaf GDC. Indeed, formation of a cyanobacterial GDC from the individual recombinant GCS proteins in vitro could be demonstrated. Presence and metabolic significance of a Synechocystis GDC in vivo remain to be examined but could involve multimers of the GCS H-protein that dynamically crosslink the three GCS enzyme proteins, facilitating glycine metabolism by the formation of multienzyme metabolic complexes. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD018211.

Thioredoxin h2 contributes to the redox regulation of mitochondrial photorespiratory metabolism.

Thioredoxins (TRXs) are important proteins involved in redox regulation of metabolism. In plants, it has been shown that the mitochondrial metabolism is regulated by the mitochondrial TRX system. However, the functional significance of TRX h2, which is found at both cytosol and mitochondria, remains unclear. Arabidopsis plants lacking TRX h2 showed delayed seed germination and reduced respiration alongside impaired stomatal and mesophyll conductance, without impacting photosynthesis under ambient O2 conditions. However, an increase in the stoichiometry of photorespiratory CO2 release was found during O2 -dependent gas exchange measurements in trxh2 mutants. Metabolite profiling of trxh2 leaves revealed alterations in key metabolites of photorespiration and in several metabolites involved in respiration and amino acid metabolism. Decreased abundance of serine hydroxymethyltransferase and glycine decarboxylase (GDC) H and L subunits as well as reduced NADH/NAD+ ratios were also observed in trxh2 mutants. We further demonstrated that the redox status of GDC-L is altered in trxh2 mutants in vivo and that recombinant TRX h2 can deactivate GDC-L in vitro, indicating that this protein is redox regulated by the TRX system. Collectively, our results demonstrate that TRX h2 plays an important role in the redox regulation of mitochondrial photorespiratory metabolism.

Impaired folate 1-carbon metabolism causes formate-preventable hydrocephalus in glycine decarboxylase-deficient mice.

Ventriculomegaly and hydrocephalus are associated with loss of function of glycine decarboxylase (Gldc) in mice and in humans suffering from non-ketotic hyperglycinemia (NKH), a neurometabolic disorder characterized by accumulation of excess glycine. Here, we showed that ventriculomegaly in Gldc-deficient mice is preceded by stenosis of the Sylvian aqueduct and malformation or absence of the subcommissural organ and pineal gland. Gldc functions in the glycine cleavage system, a mitochondrial component of folate metabolism, whose malfunction results in accumulation of glycine and diminished supply of glycine-derived 1-carbon units to the folate cycle. We showed that inadequate 1-carbon supply, as opposed to excess glycine, is the cause of hydrocephalus associated with loss of function of the glycine cleavage system. Maternal supplementation with formate prevented both ventriculomegaly, as assessed at prenatal stages, and postnatal development of hydrocephalus in Gldc-deficient mice. Furthermore, ventriculomegaly was rescued by genetic ablation of 5,10-methylene tetrahydrofolate reductase (Mthfr), which results in retention of 1-carbon groups in the folate cycle at the expense of transfer to the methylation cycle. In conclusion, a defect in folate metabolism can lead to prenatal aqueduct stenosis and resultant hydrocephalus. These defects are preventable by maternal supplementation with formate, which acts as a 1-carbon donor.

Identification of a new GLDC gene alternative splicing variant and its protumorigenic roles in lung cancer.

Aim: To clarify the regulatory roles of GLDCV1, the first identified truncated glycine decarboxylase (GLDC), on cancer stem cells and tumorigenesis. Materials & methods: RT-PCR or RT-qPCR, immunoblotting and immunohistochemical staining were applied to assess gene expression. MTT, BrdU incorporation and colony formation assays were used to examine cell proliferation capacity. Soft agar colony formation and in vivo transplantation were applied to evaluate cellular transformation and tumorigenesis. Results & conclusion: Expression of GLDCV1 or GLDC was enhanced in non-small-cell lung cancer cell line and clinical samples. GLDCV1 overexpression induced MRC5 cell proliferation, transformation and tumorigenesis. Additionally, GLDCV1 increased lactate production and cancer stem cell marker expression and activated ERK and P38 pathways. Our study gained deeper insight into GLDC oncogene.

Transition from C3 to proto-Kranz to C3-C4 intermediate type in the genus Chenopodium (Chenopodiaceae).

The Chenopodiaceae is one of the families including C4 species among eudicots. In this family, the genus Chenopodium is considered to include only C3 species. However, we report here a transition from C3 photosynthesis to proto-Kranz to C3-C4 intermediate type in Chenopodium. We investigated leaf anatomical and photosynthetic traits of 15 species, of which 8 species showed non-Kranz anatomy and a CO2 compensation point (Γ) typical of C3 plants. However, 5 species showed proto-Kranz anatomy and a C3-like Γ, whereas C. strictum showed leaf anatomy and a Γ typical of C3-C4 intermediates. Chenopodium album accessions examined included both proto-Kranz and C3-C4 intermediate types, depending on locality. Glycine decarboxylase, a key photorespiratory enzyme that is involved in the decarboxylation of glycine, was located predominantly in the mesophyll (M) cells of C3 species, in both M and bundle-sheath (BS) cells in proto-Kranz species, and exclusively in BS cells in C3-C4 intermediate species. The M/BS tissue area ratio, number of chloroplasts and mitochondria per BS cell, distribution of these organelles to the centripetal region of BS cells, the degree of inner positioning (vacuolar side of chloroplasts) of mitochondria in M cells, and the size of BS mitochondria also changed with the change in glycine decarboxylase localization. All Chenopodium species examined were C3-like regarding activities and amounts of C3 and C4 photosynthetic enzymes and δ13C values, suggesting that these species perform photosynthesis without contribution of the C4 cycle. This study demonstrates that Chenopodium is not a C3 genus and is valuable for studying evolution of C3-C4 intermediates.

Redox-Regulation of Photorespiration through Mitochondrial Thioredoxin o1.

Photorespiration sustains photosynthesis in the presence of oxygen due to rapid metabolization of 2-phosphoglycolate, the major side-product of the oxygenase activity of Rubisco that also directly impedes carbon assimilation and allocation. Despite the fact that both the biochemical reactions and the underlying genetics are well characterized, information concerning the regulatory mechanisms that adjust photorespiratory flux is rare. Here, we studied the impact of mitochondrial-localized thioredoxin o1 (TRXo1) on photorespiratory metabolism. The characterization of an Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) transfer DNA insertional line (trxo1-1) revealed an increase in the stoichiometry of photorespiratory CO2 release and impaired Gly-to-Ser turnover after a shift from high-to-low CO2 without changes in Gly decarboxylase (GDC) gene or protein expression. These effects were distinctly pronounced in a double mutant, where the TRXo1 mutation was combined with strongly reduced GDC T-protein expression. The double mutant (TxGT) showed reduced growth in air but not in high CO2, decreased photosynthesis, and up to 54-fold more Gly alongside several redox-stress-related metabolites. Given that GDC proteins are potential targets for redox-regulation, we also examined the in vitro properties of recombinant GDC l-proteins (lipoamide dehydrogenase) from plants and the cyanobacterium Synechocystis species strain PCC6803 and observed a redox-dependent inhibition by either artificial reducing agents or TRXo1 itself. Collectively, our results demonstrate that TRXo1 potentially adjusts photorespiration via redox-regulation of GDC in response to environmental changes.